Early Maladaptive Schemas, Emotion Regulation, and Forgiveness Across the Narcissism Spectrum: A Dimensional Comparative Study

Authors

  • Reyhaneh Miralikhani Student Research Committee, Department of Clinical Psychology, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.
  • Gholamreza Ahmadi Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran.
  • Mohadese Shiyasi Student Research Committee, Department of Clinical Psychology, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.
  • Zahra Safikhani Student Research Committee, Department of Clinical Psychology, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.
  • Seyedeh Elnaz Mousavi Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Health and Metabolic Diseases Research Institute, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18502/ijps.v21i4.22773

Keywords:

Comparative Study; Emotion Regulation; Forgiveness; Narcissism; Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Abstract

Objective: This cross-sectional study compared early maladaptive schemas, emotion regulation, and forgiveness across healthy, narcissistic traits, and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) groups.

Method: Convenience sampling yielded 492 adults: healthy individuals (n=205), individuals with narcissistic traits (n=196), and NPD (n=91). NPD classification required meeting the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 Screening Personality Questionnaire (SCID-5-SPQ) threshold and telephone-based diagnostic confirmation. The traits group scored ≥8 on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory-16 (NPI-16) but did not meet the SCID-5-SPQ threshold; healthy participants scored below both thresholds. Participants completed Persian versions of the Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form 3, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and Heartland Forgiveness Scale. Multivariate analysis of covariance controlled for age, education, and marital status.

Results: Both narcissistic groups scored higher than healthy participants on emotional deprivation, F (2, 486) = 6.65, P = 0.001, η²p = 0.027; defectiveness/shame, F (2, 486) = 7.00, P = 0.001, η²p = 0.028; and entitlement/grandiosity, F (2, 486) = 28.52, P < 0.001, η²p = 0.105. NPD participants reported higher perspective-taking than both groups, F (2, 486) = 10.57, P < 0.001, η²p = 0.042, and higher soothing than healthy participants, F (2, 486) = 6.87, P = 0.001, η²p = 0.027. Healthy participants reported higher self-forgiveness than NPD participants, F (2, 486) = 5.14, P = 0.006, η²p = 0.021, and higher forgiveness of others than both narcissistic groups, F (2, 486) = 13.33, P < 0.001, η²p = 0.052. Situational forgiveness differed, F (2, 486) = 11.07, P < 0.001, η²p = 0.044, with healthy > traits > NPD. No differences emerged in enhancing positive affect, social modeling, suppression, or cognitive reappraisal.

Conclusion: schema vulnerabilities and forgiveness difficulties may be associated with narcissistic traits and NPD, while perspective-taking and situational forgiveness may differentiate NPD from trait-level narcissism. Findings are associative, not causal.

Published

2026-09-22

Issue

Volume (21) issue (4)

Section

Articles