Cracking the Human Cytomegalovirus Code: Trinary Challenges of Latency, Immune Evasion, and Correlates of Protection

Abstract

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) poses a significant challenge to vaccine development due to its complex biology characterized by latency, immune evasion strategies, and undefined correlates of protection (CoPs). HCMV latency allows the virus to evade immune surveillance by remaining in a quiescent state in host cells, with the risk of reactivation triggered by immune damage or cell differentiation. In addition, HCMV employs an arsenal of immune evasion strategies, including modulating MHC expression, inhibiting natural killer (NK) cell activity, and subverting antibody-mediated responses, so these mechanisms further complicate vaccine design. Despite these obstacles, advances in basic research in immunology and vaccine technologies offer new opportunities. Strategies such as targeting latency-associated mechanisms, using memory inflation of CMV-specific T cells to induce long-term tissue-resident immunity, and developing immunogens that antagonize viral immunoevasins are promising approaches. New platforms, including mRNA and vector-based vaccines, show the potential to elicit robust humoral and cellular responses against key viral antigens such as glycoprotein B, pentamer complex, and pp65. In addition, adjuvants that restore impaired NK and T cell function could improve vaccine effectiveness. This review examines the molecular and immunological barriers to HCMV vaccine development and highlights innovative approaches to address these challenges. By addressing the complexities of latency, immune evasion, and CoPs, we propose a roadmap for developing a multimodal vaccine that can provide effective and durable protection against HCMV infections.