Iranian Journal of Parasitology

Viscerotropic Leishmaniasis in Iran: Current Insights and Future Directions: A Narrative Review

2026-06-02T07:39:29+00:00

This narrative review synthesizes the current evidence on the geographic distribution, diagnostic approaches, and clinical and epidemiological characteristics of Viscerotropic leishmaniasis (VTL) in both human and animal hosts in Iran. A comprehensive search of electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, etc.) was conducted for articles (1997 to 2025) reporting VTL in Iran with PCR-based species confirmation. Twenty-three studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed. The findings indicate that VTL in Iran is predominantly caused by Leishmania tropica, with notable cases attributed to L. major. A key finding is the frequent reporting of treatment failure with pentavalent antimonials in these VTL cases. Conversely, L. infantum, the typical agent of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), has also been implicated in CL across various regions, suggesting its potential role in dermotropic leishmaniasis (DL) in humans. Rare cases of L. tropica-induced VTL in dogs highlight a potential zoonotic dimension. Reported treatment failure with first-line antimonials in several VTL cases caused by these species, highlighting a critical therapeutic challenge. VTL, primarily caused by L. tropica, represents an emerging public health concern in Iran with distinct epidemiological and therapeutic implications. The reviewed evidence underscores an urgent need for rapid diagnostic tools to differentiate VTL from classic VL and to guide species-specific treatment, as standard antimonial therapy often fails. A multidisciplinary approach integrating enhanced surveillance, targeted research, and revised clinical guidelines is essential to mitigate the burden of this neglected disease.

Assessment of Immunogenicity of Multi-Epitope DNA Vaccine Encoding CDPK3, ROP22 & MIC8 of Toxoplasma gondii Adjuvanted with IL-12 Against Acute and Chronic Toxoplasmosis in BALB/c Mice

2026-06-02T07:39:28+00:00

Background: A non-allergenic, immunogenic recombinant DNA plasmid encoding CDPK3, MIC8, and ROP22 epitopes was evaluated as a DNA vaccine against Toxoplasma gondii in BALB/c mice, used in combination with IL-12 as a genetic adjuvant, to assess protection against both acute and chronic toxoplasmosis.

Methods: BALB/c mice were immunized three times at two-week intervals with the DNA vaccine combined with IL-12. Humoral immune responses were measured by total IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a levels, while cellular responses were evaluated through interferon-γ production and lymphocyte proliferation assays. Protective efficacy was assessed using challenge models with T. gondii: the virulent RH strain for acute infection survival and the non-virulent Tehran strain for chronic infection, based on reduction of brain tissue cysts.

Results: Vaccinated mice exhibited strong antigen-specific immunity, with elevated total IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a titers. Enhanced IFN-γ production and lymphocyte proliferation confirmed cellular activation. These responses correlated with reduced brain cyst counts after infection with the avirulent Tehran strain and prolonged survival with decreased parasite burden following virulent RH strain challenge, indicating improved protection.

Conclusion: Co-delivery of IL-12 enhanced both the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of the CDPK3–MIC8–ROP22 multi-epitope DNA vaccine by inducing a Th1-biased response that conferred protection against acute and chronic T. gondii infection. These findings support this vaccination strategy as a promising approach for toxoplasmosis control and highlight the need for further evaluation in diverse animal models and clinical settings to confirm safety, efficacy, and long-term immunity.

Serum Eosinophil Cationic Protein in Urticaria Patients with Anti-Toxocara IgG Antibodies

2026-06-02T07:39:27+00:00

Background: Toxocariasis is a parasitic disease that affects both humans and animals and is caused by migration of helminth larvae of Toxocara spp. in the host. It often presents with allergization such as urticaria, asthma-like symptoms and/or eosinophilia. Standard diagnosis is via the discovery of specific anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies which are difficult to interpret, which is why additional diagnostic criteria are necessary. We aimed to determine the levels of eosinophil cationic protein in patients with acute and chronic spontaneous urticaria with or without anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies, in order to assess the value of eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) for the diagnosis of covert cases of toxocariasis among patients with clinical allergy.

Methods: We examined ECP levels in 48 patients with urticaria who were Toxocara-IgG positive, in 45 patients with urticaria with a negative result for anti-Toxocara IgG and in 50 healthy controls without allergic symptoms or anti-Toxocara antibodies.

Results: Median serum ECP levels were significantly higher in patients with urticaria compared to the controls (P=0.007). We also determined that median ECP levels were significantly higher in patients with acute urticaria that were carriers of anti-Toxocara antibodies, compared to acute urticaria patients without anti-Toxocara antibodies (P=0.040). There was a significant positive correlation between ECP and anti-Toxocara IgG antibody levels (P = 0.024).

Conclusion: ECP could be used as an additional marker to assess cases of potential "latent" toxocariasis among urticaria patients.

The Infestation of Supplied Mincemeat to Sarcocystis Species and Their Polymorphism Using PCR-SSCP Method

2026-06-02T07:39:26+00:00

Background: Sarcocystis spp. is zoonotic parasitic pathogen endangering the safety of meat and derived meat products. This study was carried on for determination of presence of Sarcocystis species in mincemeat in Tabriz (Iran) using single-stranded conformation polymorphism (SSCP) method.

Methods: Thirty samples of mixed ground meat were collected from butchers and DNA was extracted. The 18S rRNA gene fragment of S. cruzi and S. hominis species in the extracted DNA amplified by PCR using one pair specific primers, which resulted in 937 bp length fragments in parasite-positive samples. The results showed that 11 samples out of 30 (36%) were positive for S. cruzi and S. hominis species. The SSCP technique products of gene indicated 4 SSCP patterns (A, B, C and D) among study samples on 18S rRNA gene of S. cruzi and S. hominis.

Results: Contamination with Sarcocystis species in minced meat sold in Tabriz City in Iran is relatively high, which is of particular importance from a health point of view. This study was currently by SSCP technique on minced meat for the first time, based on the primers in the 18S rRNA gene locus, there are polymorphisms in S. cruzi and S. hominis species.

Conclusion: Due to the relatively high level of Sarcocystis contamination in minced meats in Tabriz, the necessary hygienic measures should be must implemented. Also, there was polymorphism in S. cruzi and S. homonis.

The Prevalence of Intestinal Parasitic Infections in Labor Children in Karaj, Alborz Province, Iran

2026-06-02T07:39:24+00:00

Background: Child labor (CL) is the exploitation of children through any work or activity that interferes with their ability to attend school or is harmful to their mental, physical, social, or moral well-being. Unfortunately, child laborers are a shadow population for which specific information on the prevalence of intestinal parasites is not available; we aimed to estimate the prevalence of intestinal parasites among child laborers in Karaj-Alborz, Iran.

Methods: The present study was conducted with a cross-sectional design between 2020 and 2022 in Karaj-Alborz, Central Iran. Two hundred and three stool samples were collected from working children in Karaj and its suburbs. The samples were examined for the presence of intestinal parasites at Alborz University of Medical Sciences using parasitological techniques (e.g., t smear, Formalin-Ether concentration, modified trichrome staining, and Ziehl-Neelsen staining).

Results: The prevalence of intestinal parasites in CLs was estimated at 76% (156/203), of which 76.4% (155/156) were associated with protozoa and 1/203 (0.5%) with helminths. The highest prevalence was related to the protozoan Blastocystis hominis (89 cases (43.8%)), and among the pathogens, 11 cases (5.4%) of Giardia duodenalis were isolated.

Conclusion: The significant and alarming prevalence of intestinal parasites in CLs requires preventive, supportive, and therapeutic measures for this vulnerable population. Further attention should focus on the health status of child laborers in future studies.

Impact of Livestock Shed Sanitation on Zoonotic Parasite Exposure in Stunted Children from Farming Communities

2026-06-02T07:39:22+00:00

Background: Poor livestock shed sanitation may facilitate transmission of intestinal protozoa and contribute to child undernutrition, particularly stunting. However, evidence on zoonotic risks in smallholder farming communities remains limited.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 79 stunted children (<5 years) and 79 cattle in Jember Regency, Indonesia. Anthropometric status was assessed using the WHO criteria. Shed sanitation was evaluated through structured observation (location, orientation, construction, waste handling, cleanliness). Stool samples from children and cattle were examined for Cryptosporidium spp. using modified Ziehl Neelsen staining and for Entamoeba spp. by direct microscopy. Data were analyzed with Chi-square tests and multivariable logistic regression adjusting for household and socioeconomic factors.

Results: Cryptosporidium spp. was detected in 13.5% of children and 32.9% of cattle. Entamoeba spp. was found in 11.4% of children. Shed orientation without sunlight exposure was associated with Cryptosporidium spp. infection (OR = 14.3; 95% CI: 1.39–149.2; P = 0.021). Shed location within 10 m of the home was associated with Entamoeba spp. infection (adjusted OR = 17.8; 95% CI: 1.13–279.6; P = 0.041). Other sanitation variables showed non-significant but plausible associations.

Conclusion: Poor shed sanitation, particularly proximity to homes, and lack of sunlight exposure, was associated with intestinal protozoa among stunted children. While causality cannot be inferred due to diagnostic and design limitations, the findings highlight the importance of livestock management in child health. Further studies with molecular diagnostics and larger representative samples are recommended.

Frequency and Subtypes of Blastocystis in Patients with Diarrhea in Van, Türkiye 2022–2023

2026-06-02T07:39:21+00:00

Background: We sought to determine how often Blastocystis. occurs and which subtypes predominate in patients suffering from diarrhea in Van, Türkiye.

Methods: We enrolled 200 volunteers—100 with diarrhea and 100 healthy controls—and examined their stool samples both by light microscopy and by PCR amplification of the 18S SSU rRNA gene. DNA sequences from 14 positive PCR amplicons were analyzed for the 18S SSU rDNA gene, and the subtypes were identified by sequence analysis of the PCR amplicons.

Results: Blastocystis was identified in 20 of 100 diarrheal patients (20%) and in 16 of 100 controls (16%). Among patients, the highest carriage rate was seen in females (21.6%), whereas in the control group it was males who showed the greatest prevalence (20.7%). When stratified by age, individuals aged 11–18 years exhibited the highest positivity: 40% in the patient cohort and 21.4% among controls. No significant differences emerged between patient and control groups with respect to age or sex overall, although the comparison of under-18s (23%) versus those 19 and older (10.3%) reached statistical significance (P = 0.013). Statistical analysis did not reveal any link between Blastocystis carriage and gastrointestinal symptoms. Sequencing of positive diarrheal samples showed that subtype 1 (ST1) accounted for 71.4% and subtype 2 (ST2) for 28.6% of cases.

Conclusion: The dominance of ST1 in diarrheal patients supports the subtype-pathogenicity relationship; however, further studies involving a large number of symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals are required to elucidate this relationship more precisely.

Epidemiological and Evaluative Study of the Prevalence of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Najaf Governorate, Iraq

2026-06-02T07:39:20+00:00

Background: The developing world encounter rising Leishmaniasis. Therefore, it remains a substantial public health burden in Iraq. A revised dataset on its prevalence and distribution are essential. We aimed to evaluate the epidemiological status of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Najaf Governorate and evaluate the therapeutic effectiveness of included drugs.

Methods: The investigation was conducted in several hospitals in Najaf City, Iraq from March 2023 to May 2025. Samples were collected from 275 suspected patients. Of these, 157 were confirmed to be infected with the disease (103 males and 54 females). Their ages ranged from 3 to 48 years.

Results: Males constituted most of the total infections, accounting for 65.6% of cases, whereas females represented only 34.4%. Regarding distribution, Rural areas recorded the highest proportion of cases (71.34%), while urban areas comprised the remaining percentage (28.66%). Regarding monthly variation, January, February, March, and November represented the peak period, comprising 50.3% of the confirmed cases. Concerning lesion localization, facial lesions were the most common, representing 38.22% of the total cases.

Conclusion: Cutaneous leishmaniasis is found among individuals in the surveyed hospitals, suggesting a significant health issue. Further research is necessary to determine the diseases spread across Iraq and to guide control measures.

Platelet Indices and Hemoglobin, Albumin, Lymphocyte, and Platelet (HALP) Score Alterations in Sheep with Molecularly Confirmed Theileria spp. Infection

2026-06-02T07:39:18+00:00

Background: The hemoglobin (Hb), albumin (ALB), lymphocyte (LYM), and platelet (PLT) components of the HALP score, a human-derived immune-nutritional index, are currently being investigated in the veterinary field. We aimed to evaluate and compare the HALP score and platelet indices (PI) in Theileria-infected and non-infected sheep.

Methods: One hundred sheep from different farms in Semnan Province were screened for the presence of Theileria between June and August 2023 using microscopy and molecular-based methods. Hematocrit (Hct), Hb, red blood cell (RBC), LYM, PLT, plateletcrit (PCT), mean platelet volume (MPV), platelet distribution width (PDW), and ALB were measured. The HALP score was calculated by multiplying Hb in ALB by LYM and dividing by PLT.

Results: Microscopic and PCR analyses identified 21 and 27 positive samples for Theileria species, respectively. Results showed T. ovis in 52%, T. lestoquardi in 26%, T. annulata in 11%, and a co-infection of T. ovis and T. lestoquardi in 11% of the samples. The PLT and PCT showed significant differences in sheep infected with T. lestoquardi. A significant difference was also observed in PDW between sheep infected with T. ovis and T. lestoquardi compared to those infected with T. annulata. Statistical differences in the HALP score were noted for T. lestoquardi (P = 0.03), T. annulata (P = 0.01), and co-infections of T. ovis and T. lestoquardi (P = 0.05) versus T. ovis.

Conclusion: PLT indices (PI) and HALP scores can improve diagnostic processes, and future studies should use them alongside other methods for diagnosing Theileria species

Identification of Leishmania major and Other Causative Species in Syrian Patients Infected with Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

2026-06-02T07:39:16+00:00

Background: Leishmaniasis presents in three main clinical forms: Cutaneous (CL), Visceral (VL), and Mucocutaneous (MCL). In Hatay, CL is generally caused by L. infantum and L. tropica, with L. major appearing less frequently. Following the 2011 migration wave from Syria, we aimed to identify the causative Leishmania species, particularly L. major, among Syrian patients living in households and tent cities in Hatay, Turkey.

Methods: Smear preparations from 250 Syrian patients diagnosed with CL at Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey between 2011 and 2019 were retrospectively analyzed. DNA was isolated from these preparations, and molecular typing was performed by Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) using primers and probes specific to the ITS1 gene region.

Results: Molecular analysis revealed that 182 (72.8%) of 250 Syrian patients were infected with L. tropica, 59 (23.6%) with L. infantum/donovani, and 9 (3.6%) with L. major. While L. tropica and L. major are known causative species in Syria, the detection of L. infantum cases suggests the possibility of local transmission by sand flies, the primary vector in the Hatay region, during the patients' stay in tent cities.

Conclusion: The findings highlight the distribution of different Leishmania species among the Syrian population in Hatay. Implementing species-specific treatment protocols and maintaining effective notification and control activities are crucial for preventing the further spread of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in the region.

Microscopic and Molecular Identification of Trypanosoma lewisi among Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus from The District Kasur, Punjab, Pakistan

2026-06-02T07:39:14+00:00

Background: We investigated the prevalence of Trypanosoma lewisi in Black rats (Rattus rattus) and Brown rats (R. norvegicus) using both microscopic and molecular detection methods, along with the analysis of associated risk factors.

Methods: A total of 178 rodents were trapped in Kasur district between November 2023 and November 2024, with epidemiological data and geographical coordinates recorded. Rodents were identified, euthanized and blood samples were collected. T. lewisi was confirmed through microscopy, PCR, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. A GIS map was generated using ArcGIS 10.5.1 to illustrate geographical distribution.

Results: A total of 178 blood samples were examined by microscopically and by PCR. PCR confirmed to be either microscopically positive or negative samples. Overall prevalence of T. lewisi was 10(5.62%) and the findings were consistent across both diagnostic methods. At the species level, T. lewisi prevalence was higher in R. rattus (7.59%) compared to R. norvegicus (4.04%). Gender and the presence of ectoparasites were identified as potential risk factors.

Conclusion: These findings confirm the presence of T. lewisi in black and brown rats and serve as a baseline for further surveillance and control strategies.

Toxoplasma gondii Microneme Protein 3 (TgMIC3): Computational Probing for Improved Vaccine Design

2026-06-02T07:39:12+00:00

Background: Microneme protein 3 (MIC3) is a key adhesion molecule in Toxoplasma gondii that is expressed during multiple stages of infection. We aimed to computationally characterize the immunological and structural features of the T. gondii MIC3 protein to assess its potential suitability as a vaccine candidate.

Methods: A comprehensive set of bioinformatics tools and web servers was employed to predict the physicochemical properties, allergenicity, antigenicity, solubility, post-translational modification sites, subcellular localization, transmembrane domains, signal peptides, secondary and tertiary structures, potential B- and T-lymphocyte epitopes, and simulated immune responses of the TgMIC3 protein.

Results: A total of 75 post-translational modification sites were predicted in TgMIC3. Furthermore, secondary structure analysis using GOR IV, SOPMA, and NetSurfP-3.0 indicated that random coils and extended strands were the predominant structural elements. In addition, several high-affinity B- and T-cell epitopes were identified across the protein sequence. Subsequent structural validation revealed that 82.91% and 98.60% of residues were located in favored regions in the initial and refined 3D models, respectively. The findings of the allergenicity and antigenicity assessments indicated that the MIC3 antigen seemed to be a non-allergen with an immunogenic nature. Moreover, immune simulation using the C-ImmSim server demonstrated that TgMIC3 could induce robust humoral and cell-mediated immune responses following three simulated antigen administrations.

Conclusion: This study provides foundational computational evidence supporting the potential of TgMIC3 as a vaccine antigen and offers a useful framework for future experimental investigations targeting vaccine development against acute and latent toxoplasmosis.

Molecular Prevalence and Risk Factor Assessment of Theileria Spp. in Small Ruminants of Sistan, Southeast of Iran

2026-06-02T07:39:11+00:00

Background: Theileriosis is a tropical and sub-tropical disease that causes economic losses in livestock. Theileriosis in small ruminants, manifests through a range of clinical signs, including fever, mucoid nasal secretions, anemia, jaundice, lacrimation, enlarged superficial lymph nodes, anorexia, and accelerated weight reduction. In this study, the prevalence of Theileria spp. was determined in asymptomatic small ruminants of the Sistan region located in the southeast of Iran.

Methods: The collected samples of apparently healthy sheep (n=48) and goats (n=52), obtained between February 2023 and February 2024, were tested by PCR for theileriosis detection. Two positive PCR products sequenced and assembled sequences deposited in GenBank with PQ227215 and PQ227216 accession numbers. Phylogenetic analysis conducted based on partial 18S rRNA gene amplification.

Results: The prevalence of Theileria spp. in asymptomatic small ruminants was estimated at 32% in the Sistan region in this study. Risk factors were also investigated. A significant relationship was identified between Theileria infection and tick infestation in goats; however, no significant associations were found with other parameters such as species, gender, age, or location.

Conclusion: Theileriosis appears to be endemic among small ruminants in Sistan. Expanding research efforts in the area and investigating potential risk factors to detect various circulating species of Theileria could aid in managing this disease within the region. Conducting larger-scale studies would be beneficial for disease control efforts.

A Therapeutic Side Effect on Hydatid Cyst after Lung Cancer Treatment: A Case Report

2026-06-02T07:39:10+00:00

Cystic echinococcus (CE) is an important health problem affecting societies living especially in rural areas. Our patient was a 64-year-old male who received PAIR treatment and albendazole treatment for CE at Haydarpaşa Numune Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey between 2022 and 2025. The patient was first operated on for lung cancer. After treatment, the patient continues to live asymptomatically in the 36-month follow-up. We observed and followed up that the paxlitaxel and carboplatin treatments received by our patient caused regression in the CE lesions. We think that the effectiveness of this situation should be evaluated first with experimental studies.

Comment on “Epidemiological Study of Toxocara Eggs in the Soil of Public Parks in Iran with an Emphasis on Climatic and Seasonal Diversity”

2026-06-02T07:39:08+00:00

The Article Abstract is not available.

Response to “Comment on Epidemiological Study of Toxocara Eggs in the Soil of Public Parks in Iran with an Emphasis on Climatic and Seasonal Diversity”

2026-06-02T07:39:07+00:00

The Article Abstract is not available.